Cartagena de Indias: Historical fortifications and maritime defenses

The historical defenses of Cartagena de Indias include both visible stone walls and significant underwater engineering. The Bocagrande submarine breakwater, a nearly two-kilometer-long structure built in the late 18th century, was designed to close a vulnerable deep-water entrance used by British forces during the 1741 siege led by Admiral Edward Vernon.

Additionally, the Castillo de los Moros serves as a notable 18th-century neoclassical fortification. Built between 1773 and 1778 under the direction of military engineer Juan Martín Cermeño and executed by Mateo Vodopich, the structure was designed to protect the Navy Hospital, shipyards, and the Puertas de San José from land-based attacks. Despite its name, the castle is not a medieval Islamic fortress but an Enlightenment-era military work influenced by French military schools.