Confucianism: The evolution of practical learning and modern transformation

The intellectual landscape of the Ming and Qing dynasties saw a significant shift toward ‘practical learning’ (shixue). This movement emerged as a response to the perceived emptiness of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, which scholars criticized for focusing on subjective meditation rather than objective investigation and social utility. Thinkers such as Gu Yanwu, Huang Zongxi, and Wang Fuzhi advocated for a return to classical texts to address social crises, emphasizing empirical research, institutional critique, and practical governance.

In the late Qing period, Kang Youwei further transformed Confucianism by attempting to reconcile traditional classics with modern Western concepts. By reinterpreting the classics through the lens of social evolution and democratic ideals, Kang sought to break the stagnation of traditional scholarship. His work aimed to bridge the gap between Chinese tradition and modern social structures, providing a theoretical framework for institutional reform and the modernization of Confucian thought.